PSYC 100: Introduction to Psychology
​Week 1 Supplment Part 3
Dr. Carlyle Rogers, Associate Professor
Biological Psychology Important Terms to Know
 
Neurobiology and Neurophysiology 
  • Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
  • Neuron: A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
  • Cell Body (Soma): The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles; it integrates incoming signals.
  • Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.
  • Axon: A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron's cell body to other neurons or muscles.
  • Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, triggered by a change in the charge across the neuron's membrane.
  • Glial Cells: Support cells in the nervous system that nourish, protect, and support neurons.
  • Synapse: The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.
  • Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential.
  • Refractory Period: A period immediately following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire.
  • All-or-None Response: The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses.
  • Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.
  • Opiate: A type of drug that binds to opioid receptors in the brain to reduce pain.
  • Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood elevators.
 
Nervous System
  • Nervous System: The network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprises the brain and spinal cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All the nerves outside the CNS, including sensory and motor neurons.
  • Nerves: Bundles of axons that transmit signals to and from different parts of the body.
  • Sensory Neurons: Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the CNS.
  • Motor Neurons: Neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands.
  • Interneurons: Neurons within the CNS that process information and connect sensory and motor neurons.
  • Somatic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
  • Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion.
  • Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the body's fight-or-flight response.
  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy.
 
Endocrine System
  • Endocrine System: A collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions.
  • Hormones: Chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream.
  • Adrenal Glands: Glands that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol, which help arouse the body in times of stress.
  • Pituitary Gland: The "master gland" that regulates other endocrine glands and releases hormones affecting growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
 
Brain Anatomy and Functions
  • Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain that includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla; controls basic life functions.
  • Midbrain: The middle part of the brain involved in vision, hearing, motor control, and alertness.
  • Forebrain: The largest part of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and limbic system, involved in complex behaviors and mental processes.
  • Brainstem: The oldest part of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
  • Medulla: Controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.
  • Thalamus: Acts as the brain's sensory control center, relaying messages between lower brain centers and the cerebral cortex.
  • Reticular Formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and alertness.
  • Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
  • Limbic System: A group of interconnected structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.
  • Amygdala: Involved in processing emotions such as fear and aggression.
  • Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily functions such as temperature, hunger, and thirst, and controls the pituitary gland.
  • Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories.
 
Cerebral Cortex and Lobes
  • Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain involved in higher-order functions such as thought, perception, and voluntary movement.
  • Frontal Lobes: Involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.
  • Parietal Lobes: Processes sensory information related to touch, pressure, and spatial orientation.
  • Occipital Lobes: Responsible for vision.
  • Temporal Lobes: Involved in hearing, memory, and language.
  • Functional Areas of the Cortex:
  • Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.
  • Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input from the body, such as touch and temperature.
 
Sleep and Consciousness
  • Hallucination: A false sensory perception that occurs without external stimuli.
  • Neurogenesis: The process of generating new neurons in the brain.
  • Sequential Processing: Processing one aspect of a stimulus at a time, typically used for new or difficult tasks.
  • Parallel Processing: Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously, typically used for familiar tasks.
  • Selective Attention: Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
  • Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice an unexpected stimulus because attention is focused elsewhere.
  • Circadian Rhythm: The body's internal clock that regulates sleep-wake cycles roughly every 24 hours.
  • REM Sleep: A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.
  • Alpha Waves: Slow brain waves associated with a relaxed, awake state.
  • Delta Waves: Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
  • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
  • Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
  • Night Terrors: Episodes of intense fear and panic during non-REM sleep, often with physical manifestations like screaming.
  • Manifest Content: The literal storyline of a dream as remembered by the dreamer (Freud's theory).
  • Latent Content: The hidden, symbolic meaning of a dream (Freud's theory).
 
Developmental Psychology Important Terms to Know
 
Genetics and Development
  • Chromosomes: Thread-like structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, in each cell.
  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecule that carries genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
  • Genes: Units of heredity that are made up of DNA. They act as instructions to make molecules called proteins and determine individual traits.
  • Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.
  • Genome: The complete set of genetic information in an organism, including all of its genes.
  • Epigenetics: The study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.
 
Early Development
  • Zygote: The fertilized egg that undergoes rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
  • Embryo: The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
  • Fetus: The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
  • Teratogens: Substances that can cause harm to a developing fetus, such as drugs, alcohol, or environmental toxins.
  • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy, causing brain damage and growth problems.
 
Infant and Child Development
  • Reflex: An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus (e.g., sucking reflex in newborns).
  • Temperament: An individual's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, often evident from infancy.
  • Maturation: The process of development in which an individual matures or reaches full functionality. It involves biological growth processes that are relatively uninfluenced by experience.
 
Cognitive Development
  • Cognition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
  • Schema: A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
  • Assimilation: The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
  • Accommodation: The process of adjusting or changing schemas to incorporate new information.
  • Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth to about 2 years) The stage where infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
  • Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
  • Preoperational Stage: (About 2 to 7 years) The stage where a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
  • Egocentrism: In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others.
  • Concrete Operational Stage: (About 7 to 11 years) The stage where children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
  • Conservation: The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
  • Formal Operational Stage: (About 12 years and up) The stage where people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
 
Social and Emotional Development
  • Scaffold: A framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.
  • Theory of Mind: The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.
  • Stranger Anxiety: The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
  • Attachment: An emotional tie with another person, typically shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
 
Adolescence and Identity
  • Puberty: The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
  • Social Identity: The part of an individual’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups (e.g., ethnicity, religion, gender).
  • These terms cover a range of topics from genetic and prenatal development to cognitive and social development, providing a comprehensive foundation for understanding various aspects of psychological growth and development.