PSYC 100: Introduction to Psychology
Week 1 Supplement Part 1
Dr. Carlyle Rogers, Associate Professor

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Brief Overview of Psychology
Psychology and psychiatry are both fields that focus on mental health, but they differ in their approaches and scope of practice. Both fields contribute to the mental health industry, along with other fields such as social work, psychiatric nursing, substance abuse counseling, and marriage and family therapy.  

Psychology

• Focus: Study of the mind and behavior, including cognitive, emotional, and social processes.
• Training: Typically hold a doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) in psychology.
• Approach: Use therapeutic methods such as talk therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and other counseling techniques to help individuals cope with mental health issues, improve well-being, and understand behavior.
• Scope: Broad range of areas including clinical psychology, counseling psychology, educational psychology, and research.
• Prescribing Medications: Generally, psychologists do not prescribe medications, though some states and countries allow specially trained psychologists to do so.

Psychiatry

• Focus: Medical specialty focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses.
• Training: Medical doctors (M.D. or D.O.) who specialize in psychiatry after completing medical school and a residency in psychiatry.
• Approach: Combine medical treatments (like medications) with psychotherapy and other interventions to treat mental disorders.
• Scope: Can treat severe mental health conditions, manage medication regimens, and provide comprehensive mental health care.
• Prescribing Medications: Psychiatrists are licensed to prescribe medications and often do so as part of treatment plans.

 
In most jurisdictions, certain licensed professionals are legally permitted to diagnose mental health disorders. These professionals typically have advanced training and meet specific licensing requirements. Here are the key professionals who are usually authorized to diagnose mental health conditions:
 
Psychiatrists

• Qualifications: Medical doctors (M.D. or D.O.) with specialized training in psychiatry.
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat mental health disorders, prescribe medications, and provide psychotherapy.

Clinical Psychologists

• Qualifications: Hold a doctoral degree in psychology (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) with training in clinical psychology.
• Scope: Can diagnose mental health disorders, provide psychotherapy, and conduct psychological testing. They typically do not prescribe medications, although some states and countries allow specially trained psychologists to do so.

Licensed Clinical Social Workers (LCSWs)

• Qualifications: Hold a master's degree in social work (MSW) and have additional clinical training and licensure.
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat mental health disorders, provide psychotherapy, and offer case management and support

 Psychiatric Nurse Practitioners (NPs)

• Qualifications: Registered nurses with advanced degrees (master's or doctoral) and specialized training in psychiatric-mental health nursing.
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat mental health disorders, prescribe medications, and provide psychotherapy.

 
Licensed Professional Counselors (LPCs)

• Qualifications: Hold a master's degree in counseling or a related field and meet state licensure requirements.
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat mental health disorders and provide psychotherapy.

 
Marriage and Family Therapists (MFTs)

• Qualifications: Hold a master's or doctoral degree in marriage and family therapy or a related field and meet state licensure requirements.
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat mental health disorders within the context of family and relationship dynamics, provide individual, couple, and family therapy.

 
Neuropsychologists

• Qualifications: Clinical psychologists with specialized training in neuropsychology (usually holding a Ph.D. or Psy.D.).
• Scope: Can diagnose cognitive and neurological disorders through specialized testing and assessment.

 
Primary Care Physicians (PCPs)

• Qualifications: Medical doctors (M.D. or D.O.).
• Scope: Can diagnose and treat some mental health disorders, often referring patients to specialists for more complex or severe conditions.

The ability to diagnose mental health disorders depends on the professional's training, scope of practice, and licensure requirements, which can vary by jurisdiction.

Different Fields in Psychology
 
Each of these fields addresses different aspects of human behavior and mental processes, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of psychology as a whole.
 
Developmental Psychology

• Focus: Study of how people grow and change throughout their lifespan, from infancy to old age.
• Areas: Cognitive development, emotional development, social development, and physical growth.

Clinical Psychology

• Focus: Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illnesses and psychological problems.
• Methods: Use psychotherapy, psychological testing, and sometimes collaboration with other health professionals.

Counseling Psychology

• Focus: Helping individuals manage everyday life issues and transitions, including career development, relationships, and personal growth.
• Methods: Talk therapy, career counseling, and guidance.

Humanistic Psychology

• Focus: Emphasizes individual potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization.
• Key Concepts: Free will, personal responsibility, and the intrinsic worth of individuals.

Cognitive Psychology

• Focus: Study of mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Applications: Understanding how people process information and develop strategies to improve cognitive functions.

 
Community Psychology

• Focus: Enhancing the quality of life for individuals within communities and addressing social issues that impact mental health.
• Approach: Collaborative, often working with community organizations and policy development.

Positive Psychology

• Focus: Study of positive aspects of human life, such as happiness, well-being, and flourishing.
• Goals: Promote strengths, virtues, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life.

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

• Focus: Application of psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity, work-life balance, and employee well-being.
• Areas: Employee selection, performance appraisal, training, leadership, and organizational development.

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Important Theories and Laws in Psychology

In psychology, as in other scientific disciplines, laws and theories serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics. Here’s a brief explanation of the difference between a law and a theory:
 
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence and repeatedly tested through observation and experimentation.
 
Theories aim to explain why phenomena occur and to provide a framework for understanding and predicting various psychological phenomena.
 
Characteristics:

• Broad Scope: Theories cover a wide range of phenomena and are applicable in various contexts.
• Explanatory Power: Theories provide a deep understanding of the underlying mechanisms of behavior and mental processes.
• Predictive Power: Theories generate hypotheses that can be tested through research, allowing for predictions about future events or behaviors.
• Falsifiability: Theories must be structured in a way that allows them to be tested and potentially disproven by empirical evidence.

 
Examples

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Explains how and why people experience discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs and how they are motivated to reduce this discomfort.
• Attachment Theory: Explains how early relationships with caregivers shape an individual's patterns of attachment and influence their emotional development.

 
A law in psychology (and science in general) is a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspect of the world. Laws predict the outcomes of certain conditions without providing explanations for why those outcomes occur.
 
Laws describe consistent and universal relationships between variables, often in the form of mathematical equations or concise statements.
 
Characteristics

• Descriptive: Laws describe what happens under specific conditions, but do not explain why it happens.
• Predictive Accuracy: Laws predict the relationship between variables with high precision.
• Empirical Basis: Laws are based on a large body of empirical evidence and are widely accepted as being consistently true within their scope.

 
Examples:

• Weber's Law: Describes the relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the perceived change in that stimulus, stating that the ratio of the increment threshold to the background intensity is constant.
• Thorndike's Law of Effect: States that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

 
In summary, while both laws and theories are crucial in psychology, they serve different roles. Theories provide comprehensive explanations and frameworks for understanding psychological phenomena, whereas laws describe consistent relationships and predict outcomes within specific conditions.
 
Psychology is a diverse field with numerous theories that provide frameworks for understanding human behavior and mental processes. Here are some key theories across various branches of psychology:
 
Psychoanalytic Theory

• Sigmund Freud: Emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Key concepts include the id, ego, superego, and psychosexual stages of development.
• Key Concepts: Unconscious motives, defense mechanisms, and childhood experiences.

 
Behaviorism

• John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner: Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through interactions with the environment.
• Key Concepts: Classical conditioning (Pavlov), operant conditioning (Skinner), reinforcement, and punishment.

 
Humanistic Theory

• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow: Emphasizes individual potential and personal growth. Key ideas include self-actualization and the importance of free will and self-determination.
• Key Concepts: Hierarchy of needs (Maslow), self-concept, and unconditional positive regard (Rogers).

 
Cognitive Theory

• Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
• Key Concepts: Stages of cognitive development (Piaget), social learning theory, and self-efficacy (Bandura).

 
Social Cognitive Theory

• Albert Bandura: Emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experiences, and reciprocal determinism in behavior.
• Key Concepts: Modeling, self-efficacy, and reciprocal determinism.

 
Attachment Theory

• John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth: Explores the importance of early relationships between children and their caregivers in shaping development.
• Key Concepts: Secure and insecure attachment styles, the strange situation experiment.

 
Developmental Theories

• Erik Erikson: Proposed the psychosocial stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to psychological growth.
• Key Concepts: Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, and other psychosocial stages.

 
Biopsychosocial Model

• George Engel: Emphasizes the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.
• Key Concepts: Holistic approach to health, considering multiple influencing factors.

 
Ecological Systems Theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner: Describes the multiple levels of environmental influence on an individual's development.
• Key Concepts: Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

 
Psychological Research
 
Research is fundamental in psychology for several key reasons:
 
Advancing Knowledge

• Understanding Behavior: Research helps to uncover the underlying mechanisms of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
• Theoretical Development: It contributes to the development and refinement of psychological theories and models.

 
Evidence-Based Practice

• Informing Treatment: Research provides the evidence needed to develop and implement effective therapeutic interventions and treatments.
• Best Practices: It identifies best practices and guidelines for clinical practice, education, and policy.

 
Validating Interventions

• Efficacy and Effectiveness: Research tests the efficacy and effectiveness of various psychological interventions and therapies, ensuring they work as intended.
• Safety: It ensures that interventions are safe and do not cause harm.

 
Understanding Diversity

• Cultural Relevance: Research helps to understand how psychological phenomena differ across cultures, ages, genders, and other demographic variables.
• Inclusive Practices: It promotes the development of inclusive practices that consider diverse populations.

 
Informing Policy

• Public Health: Research informs public health policies and programs aimed at improving mental health at the population level.
• Legislation: It provides the data needed to support mental health legislation and funding decisions.

 
Improving Education

• Educational Strategies: Research identifies effective educational strategies and teaching methods.
• Student Outcomes: It helps improve student outcomes by understanding factors that influence learning and development.

 
Personal and Social Impact

• Individual Well-being: Research helps individuals understand themselves better and improve their personal well-being.
• Social Issues: It addresses social issues such as prejudice, discrimination, and violence, contributing to social change.

 
Bridging Gaps

• Theory-Practice Gap: Research bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, ensuring that psychological practices are grounded in scientific evidence.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration: It fosters interdisciplinary collaboration, integrating insights from other fields such as neuroscience, medicine, and sociology.

 
Ethical Standards

• Ethical Guidelines: Research contributes to the development of ethical guidelines and standards for conducting psychological research and practice.
• Protecting Participants: It ensures that research participants are protected and treated ethically.

 
Innovation

• New Technologies: Research drives the development of new technologies and methodologies in psychological assessment and treatment.
• Creative Solutions: It fosters innovative approaches to solving psychological problems and improving mental health care.

 
In psychology, theories and hypotheses are fundamental components of the scientific method. They play crucial roles in guiding research and understanding psychological phenomena.
 
Theory

• Definition: A theory is a well-substantiated, comprehensive explanation of an aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence. It integrates and explains a wide range of observations and findings.
• Purpose: Theories help to organize and make sense of existing knowledge. They provide a framework for understanding how different psychological phenomena are related and guide future research by generating new hypotheses.
• Broad Scope: Theories cover a wide range of phenomena and are applicable in various situations.
• Evidence-Based: Theories are supported by a substantial amount of empirical evidence.
• Predictive Power: Theories offer predictions about future events or behaviors, which can be tested through research.
• Falsifiability: Theories should be able to be tested and potentially disproven through empirical observation and experimentation.

 
Examples

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Proposes that people experience psychological discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs or behaviors and are motivated to reduce this discomfort by changing their attitudes or behaviors.
• Attachment Theory: Suggests that early relationships with caregivers shape an individual's patterns of attachment and influence their emotional development and relationships throughout life.

 
Hypothesis

• Definition: A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. It proposes a relationship between two or more variables.
• Purpose: Hypotheses are used to guide empirical research. They provide a focused question that researchers can test through observation and experimentation.
• Specificity: Hypotheses are specific statements about the expected relationship between variables.
• Testability: Hypotheses must be formulated in a way that allows them to be tested empirically.
• Falsifiability: Hypotheses should be structured so that they can be proven wrong if the evidence contradicts them.

 
Types

• Null Hypothesis (H0): A statement that there is no effect or no relationship between variables. It serves as the default position that researchers aim to test against.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): A statement that there is an effect or a relationship between variables. It represents the researcher's actual prediction.

 
Examples

• Hypothesis from Cognitive Dissonance Theory: "People who are paid a small amount of money to perform a boring task will report enjoying the task more than those who are paid a large amount of money."
• Hypothesis from Attachment Theory: "Children with secure attachments to their caregivers will show lower levels of anxiety in new social situations compared to children with insecure attachments."

 
In summary, a theory in psychology is a broad, evidence-based framework that explains and predicts various psychological phenomena, while a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. Hypotheses are used to conduct empirical research, which in turn helps to support, refine, or challenge existing theories.
 
Conducting psychological research involves several important aspects and terminology that are essential for understanding and executing scientific studies effectively.
 
Research Design

• Experimental Design: Involves manipulation of independent variables to observe their effect on dependent variables. Includes control groups, random assignment, and controlled conditions.
• Correlational Design: Examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. Determines whether an association exists.
• Longitudinal Design: Studies the same participants over an extended period to observe changes and developments.
• Cross-Sectional Design: Compares different groups of participants at a single point in time.

 
Ethics

• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study and voluntarily agree to participate.
• Confidentiality: Participants' data must be kept private and used only for the purposes of the research.
• Deception: If used, it must be justified and participants must be debriefed afterwards.
• Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

 
Sampling

• Population: The entire group of individuals the research is interested in.
• Sample: A subset of the population selected for the study.
• Random Sampling: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
• Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part.

 
Data Collection Methods

• Surveys/Questionnaires: Structured forms of collecting self-reported data from participants.
• Interviews: In-depth, often face-to-face, conversations to gather detailed information.
• Observations: Recording behaviors and events in natural or controlled settings.
• Experiments: Controlled investigations to test hypotheses by manipulating variables.

 
Data Analysis

• Descriptive Statistics: Summarize and describe data (e.g., mean, median, mode, standard deviation).
• Inferential Statistics: Make inferences about the population based on sample data (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, regression analysis).

 
Validity and Reliability

• Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
• Internal Validity: The degree to which the results can be attributed to the manipulated variables rather than other factors.
• External Validity: The extent to which the results can be generalized to other settings and populations.
• Reliability: The consistency of a measure. A reliable test yields the same results under consistent conditions.

 
Hypotheses

• Null Hypothesis (H0): A statement that there is no effect or difference. It is what the researcher tries to disprove.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1): A statement that there is an effect or difference. It is what the researcher aims to support.

 
Variables

• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect.
• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured to see the impact of the IV.
• Confounding Variables: Variables other than the IV that may affect the DV, potentially skewing results.

 
Operationalization: Defining how variables will be measured or manipulated in the study.
 
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences.
 
Control Group: The group that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.
 
Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment or intervention.
 
Placebo: A substance or treatment with no active therapeutic effect, used as a control in experiments.
 
Double-Blind Study: Both the participants and the researchers do not know who is receiving the treatment or placebo, reducing bias.
 
Statistical Significance: A measure of whether the results are likely due not to chance. Commonly denoted by a p-value (e.g., p < 0.05).
 
In psychology, correlation refers to a statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related to each other.
 
Correlation

• Definition: Correlation measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
• Correlation Coefficient (r): A numerical value ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship.
• +1: Perfect positive correlation.
• -1: Perfect negative correlation.
• 0: No correlation (no relationship between the variables).

 
Positive Correlation

• Definition: A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable.
• Example: If study time and test scores have a positive correlation, as the amount of time spent studying increases, test scores tend to increase as well.
• Interpretation: Both variables move in the same direction. When plotted on a scatterplot, the data points slope upward from left to right.

 
Negative Correlation

• Definition: A negative correlation occurs when an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable.
• Example: If stress levels and quality of sleep have a negative correlation, as stress levels increase, the quality of sleep tends to decrease.
• Interpretation: The variables move in opposite directions. When plotted on a scatterplot, the data points slope downward from left to right.

 
Key Points

• Correlation Does Not Imply Causation: Just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other. There could be other underlying factors influencing the relationship.
• Strength of Correlation: The closer the correlation coefficient (r) is to +1 or -1, the stronger the relationship between the variables.
• r ≈ 0.1 to 0.3: Weak correlation.
• r ≈ 0.3 to 0.5: Moderate correlation.
• r ≈ 0.5 to 1: Strong correlation.

 
Understanding correlations is important in psychology as it helps researchers identify patterns and relationships between different variables, which can lead to further investigation and understanding of underlying mechanisms.

Important Contributors to the Field of Psychology 
These key contributors have shaped various aspects of psychology through their innovative theories and research, providing foundational knowledge and insights that continue to influence the field today.
 
John B. Watson was a pioneering psychologist who is best known for establishing the psychological school of behaviorism. Here are his key contributions and primary theories:

Establishment of Behaviorism

• Watson is often referred to as the "father of behaviorism." He believed that psychology should be the science of observable behavior, not internal mental states.
• He argued that behavior can be studied objectively and scientifically, and that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

Focus on Observable Behavior

• Watson emphasized the importance of studying observable behaviors rather than introspection, which was the dominant method in psychology at the time.
• He believed that by focusing on observable and measurable behaviors, psychology could become more scientific.

Research on Classical Conditioning

• Building on the work of Ivan Pavlov, Watson conducted experiments to demonstrate that emotional responses could be conditioned.
• His famous "Little Albert" experiment showed that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus (a white rat) by associating it with a loud, frightening noise.

Application of Behaviorist Principles

• Watson applied behaviorist principles to various aspects of life, including education and child-rearing.
• He believed that behavior could be shaped and controlled through reinforcement and punishment.

Influence on Advertising

• After leaving academia, Watson worked in advertising, where he applied behaviorist principles to influence consumer behavior. He used his understanding of human emotions and conditioning to develop effective advertising campaigns.

Primary Theories
Classical Conditioning

• While Ivan Pavlov initially discovered classical conditioning, Watson's experiments, such as the Little Albert study, demonstrated that this type of learning could be applied to humans. This theory involves learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant response.

Behaviorism

• Watson's behaviorism posited that all human actions could be understood in terms of stimulus-response relationships. He believed that by controlling the environment, one could shape an individual's behavior.
• He dismissed the importance of genetic inheritance and innate traits, focusing instead on the influence of the environment and experience.

Environmental Determinism

• Watson argued that human behavior is largely determined by the environment rather than innate or inherited factors. He famously stated, "Give me a dozen healthy infants... and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select."

 
John B. Watson's work laid the groundwork for later behaviorists like B.F. Skinner and influenced a wide range of psychological practices and theories, particularly in the areas of learning and conditioning. His emphasis on empirical research and observable behavior helped to shape modern psychology's scientific approach.
 
B.F. Skinner was a leading figure in the field of psychology, particularly known for his work in behaviorism.
 
Development of Operant Conditioning

• Skinner expanded on the concept of behaviorism by developing the theory of operant conditioning, which focuses on how behavior is influenced by its consequences.
• He introduced the idea that behaviors are shaped and maintained by rewards (reinforcements) and punishments.

The Skinner Box

• Skinner designed an apparatus known as the "Skinner Box" to study animal behavior in a controlled environment. This device allowed him to systematically observe and manipulate the consequences of an animal's behavior.
• Through experiments with rats and pigeons, he demonstrated principles of operant conditioning, such as reinforcement schedules.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Skinner identified different types of reinforcement schedules (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval) that affect the rate and stability of responses.
• He showed that variable schedules, especially variable-ratio schedules, are particularly effective in maintaining behavior.

Shaping Behavior

• Skinner introduced the concept of "shaping," a method of teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired behavior.
• This technique has been widely used in education, animal training, and therapy.

Application of Operant Conditioning

• Skinner applied his principles of operant conditioning to various real-world contexts, including education, therapy, and behavior modification.
• His work has influenced practices such as behavior therapy and token economies in institutional settings.

Primary Theories
Operant Conditioning

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., giving a treat to a dog for sitting).
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise when a lever is pressed).
• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., scolding a child for misbehavior).
• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehavior).
• Reinforcement Schedules:
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses (e.g., a reward every 10th response).
• Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).
• Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time (e.g., a paycheck every two weeks).
• Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after variable amounts of time (e.g., checking for a random reward).

Behaviorism

• Skinner emphasized the importance of studying observable behavior and rejected the notion of internal mental states as primary causes of behavior.
• He believed that all behavior could be explained by interactions with the environment, specifically through the principles of reinforcement and punishment.

Impact

• Skinner's work has had a profound impact on psychology, particularly in the areas of learning, behavior modification, and education.
• His theories and methodologies continue to influence practices in clinical psychology, educational psychology, animal training, and various other fields.
• His emphasis on empirical research and the application of scientific principles to the study of behavior has helped establish psychology as a rigorous and respected science.

Sigmund Freud

• Field: Psychoanalysis
• Key Theories: Developed the theory of the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages of development, and the structure of personality (id, ego, superego).

Jean Piaget

• Field: Developmental Psychology
• Key Theories: Proposed the theory of cognitive development, outlining stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) through which children develop logical thinking.

Carl Rogers

• Field: Humanistic Psychology
• Key Theories: Developed person-centered therapy, emphasizing unconditional positive regard, empathy, and the self-concept.

Abraham Maslow

• Field: Humanistic Psychology
• Key Theories: Introduced the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization.

Albert Bandura

• Field: Social Cognitive Psychology
• Key Theories: Developed social learning theory, emphasizing the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Introduced the concept of self-efficacy.

Erik Erikson

• Field: Developmental Psychology
• Key Theories: Proposed the psychosocial stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a person's psychological growth.

Lev Vygotsky

• Field: Developmental Psychology
• Key Theories: Developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context.

John Bowlby

• Field: Developmental Psychology
• Key Theories: Developed attachment theory, focusing on the importance of early relationships between children and their caregivers.

Ivan Pavlov

• Field: Behaviorism
• Key Theories: Known for classical conditioning, demonstrated through his experiments with dogs and their conditioned responses to stimuli.